Earth sciences

Gibraltar before capture by Great Britain. Ancient people came to the territory of Gibraltar approx. 40 thousand years ago and are believed to have taken refuge in numerous rock caves. In one of the caves, a Neanderthal skull was discovered. However, due to lack of water, long-term parking was not created here. In 2–1 thousand BC Gibraltar was known to the ancient peoples of the Mediterranean as the end of the world. The Phoenicians considered the rock one of the "pillars of Melkart", and the Greeks - one of the Heracles pillars. Cretan, Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian sailors more than once reached this point and even broke up parking in Gibraltar, known as Calpe. But neither they nor the later Romans created permanent settlements on the inhospitable rock.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century. the area of \u200b\u200bGibraltar was owned by vandals and Visigoths. But the first to appreciate the military-strategic benefits of the Arabs, who landed here in 711, crossed from North Africa under the command of Tariq ibn-Seyid.

Gibraltar became part of Arab Spain. In 1160, Muslim rulers erected fortifications on a rock, the remains of which have survived to this day. However, in 1309, during the Reconquista, the Spaniards took possession of the fortress and held it until 1333, when after a four-month siege it was again captured by the Muslims who built on it a new, more powerful fortress. Subsequently, Christian armies besieged Gibraltar several times. In 1435, artillery was used for the first time in Europe during one of these sieges. However, all attempts to take possession of the rock did not bring results until 1462, when Gibraltar was occupied by Spanish forces under the command of the military commandant of Tarifa, Alonso de Argos.

The Spanish monarchy was well aware of the strategic role of Gibraltar. Queen Isabella of Castile commanded her successors to hold him at all costs. Emperor of Germany and King of Spain Charles V at the beginning of the 16th century ordered to rebuild the entire defense system on the cliff, making it impregnable. She remained the "key to Spain" for the next 200 years.

British colony. In 1704, during the Spanish Succession War, Gibraltar was captured by the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet under the command of George Rook. The Spanish garrison surrendered after a short resistance. In 1713, under the Utrecht Treaty, Gibraltar was officially ceded to the British crown by Spain. Great Britain pledged not to transfer it to any other power, and in case of abandonment to return it to Spain. Most Spanish residents left the cliff and settled in the city of San Roque in the neighboring province of Cadiz. A British military garrison was stationed in Gibraltar and immigrants from various Mediterranean countries, Sephardic Jews, Moroccans, and others were resettled.

Spain did not give up hope of regaining Gibraltar. She undertook several sieges of the fortress, right up to the Spanish-French “great siege” of 1779–1783. All of them failed, and, according to the Versailles Peace of 1783, the rock remained British possession. During the Napoleonic Wars, during the continental blockade, Gibraltar served as a transshipment point, where English goods entered the ship’s holds under the flag of other countries and were sent on their way.

In 1830, Gibraltar was officially declared a colony of Great Britain. Its importance increased even more after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. The possession of a rock made it possible to control shipping in the Mediterranean.

The administration of the colony was wholly in the hands of the British governor, who simultaneously led the British garrison. The Executive Council was chaired by the Governor.

During the Second World War, Gibraltar served as an important naval and air base for Great Britain. Residents were evacuated, and the rock turned into a fortress. Relying on Gibraltar, the Allies supplied Malta, and in November 1942 launched a landing in North Africa. After the war, residents returned to Gibraltar.

In the 20th century. Spain again began to claim Gibraltar. For the first time, she raised the question of his return in 1940. When the Queen of Great Britain visited the colony in 1954, on the 200th anniversary of the capture of Gibraltar, the Spanish authorities closed their consulate and imposed restrictions on freedom of movement between Gibraltar and Spain. In 1956, the Spanish side formally claimed the colony. New sanctions followed in the 1960s, including the ban on cars crossing the border. The question was brought to the UN, where the Spanish demand for the restoration of Spain’s territorial integrity and the transfer of Gibraltar to it was supported by Latin American countries. The UN General Assembly adopted a resolution in support of Spain. By decision of the UN, in 1966 Great Britain and Spain began negotiations on the future of Gibraltar, but they did not produce results. Groups of supporters of accession to Spain (“Palomos”) launched a protest campaign in the colony. However, at a referendum on September 10, 1967, the vast majority of the Liberal People (12,138 against 44) voted against the transfer of Spanish sovereignty.

Self management. In 1964, Gibraltar received a constitution. A parliament — the House of Assembly — was created in the colony, and a government was formed, led by chief minister Joshua Hassan, leader of the Gibraltar Civil Rights Development Association (ARGP), later transformed into the Labor Party. In 1969, a new constitution was adopted, introducing full internal self-government. The Government of Gibraltar was led by Major Robert Peliza, leader of the British Integration Party. Recalling the will of the population, Great Britain refused to recognize the resolution of the UN General Assembly of December 18, 1968, urging it to transfer the territory of Spain in early 1969.

In response, the Spanish government closed the border between Spain and Gibraltar on June 9, 1969, declared a complete economic blockade of British possession, cut off telegraph and telephone communications and shipping, and banned Spanish citizens from working in Gibraltar. He lost almost 30% of the workforce and more than 500 thousand potential buyers. The UK rendered its possession financial assistance in the amount of £ 7 million, 2/3 provided it with goods and offset other costs of the boycott. The situation softened only after the death of the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco in 1975.

The Labor House again won the House of Assembly elections in 1972, and J. Hassan again led the government. The British Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1975 officially rejected both the idea of \u200b\u200bintegrating the territory with Great Britain and the possibility of independence, declaring that any constitutional change should take into account the "Spanish question." After that, the Integration Party in 1976 broke up.

In 1980, at a meeting of British and Spanish foreign ministers. In Lisbon, with the participation of the representatives of the Gibraltar administration, an agreement was reached on the resumption of negotiations and the lifting of Spanish sanctions. In 1982, the border was partially open for a pedestrian passage. In 1985, in connection with the entry of Spain into the EU, Great Britain agreed to discuss the future of Gibraltar with Spain, including the issue of sovereignty.

In 1987, a proposal to establish joint British-Spanish control over the Gibraltar airport provoked strong protest. Chief Minister J. Hassan resigned and was replaced by Labor Laborer Adolfo Canepa. In 1988, the new Socialist Labor Party (SLPG) won the election, and its leader Joseph Bossano formed a government .. He strongly rejected any possible discussion with Spain on sovereignty. In 1991, the British army was withdrawn from Gibraltar. She was replaced by the Gibraltar Royal Regiment. The British naval and air forces remained in Gibraltar.

The Spanish government has made new attempts to achieve a change in the status of Gibraltar, although the main political forces of the territory objected to this. In 1991, the Spanish government of Felipe Gonzalez proposed establishing joint British-Spanish sovereignty over Gibraltar. With the same idea came forward the politician Peter Cumming. According to his plan, the city was to become a state headed by the British and Spanish monarchs. In 1997, the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, A. Matutes, put forward a new proposal for the introduction of joint sovereignty for a period of 50 years, with the subsequent full inclusion in Spain as an autonomous region. The proposal was rejected by the UK. The 1996 Social Democrats (GDS) party led by Peter Caruana won the 1996 election. The new head of government called for dialogue with Spain, but again categorically excluded the discussion of sovereignty.

By agreement with the opposition, the Government of Gibraltar established a constitutional reform committee in 1999, and a draft constitutional amendment was proposed in 2002. It provided for the mention of the right of self-determination of immigrants, the replacement of the post of governor with the post of lieutenant governor (as on the Channel Islands or Isle of Man), the transfer of the financial department and the appointment of the attorney general to the government, the transformation of the House of Assembly into the Gibraltar Parliament. On February 10, 2000, the GDM party again won the election.

In 2000, an agreement was reached between Great Britain and Spain on the recognition of the "competent authorities" in Gibraltar (previously Spain refused to recognize the hibernate government, court and police and the documents issued by them). In 2001, the British government announced a plan for concluding an agreement with Spain on the future of Gibraltar, including the division of sovereignty. However, no agreement was reached. At a referendum on November 7, 2002, the Giberalites rejected the possibility of dividing sovereignty between Britain and Spain by a majority of votes (17,900 versus 187). The referendum displeased Spain. Spanish authorities object to plans to give Gibraltar greater autonomy. The governments of Great Britain and Spain say that the referendum did not have legal force, but they make it clear that they are ready to pay great attention to the opinion of the people of Gibraltar. The British authorities promise not to change the status of the territory against the will of the immigrants. Spain retains its restrictions on telephone, air and sea communications with Gibraltar.

In November 2003, the GDM party won again. In 2004, residents first participated in the elections to the European Parliament. The territory was included in the constituency of South West England, and the Conservative Party received 69.5% of the vote, dissatisfied with the concessions of British Labor on the fate of Gibraltar.

New dissatisfaction from Spain was met by the visits of British nuclear vessels in the summer of 2004. In October 2004, a new round of negotiations was proposed to discuss regional cooperation.

Vadim Damier

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GIBRALTAR- British possession in southwestern Europe, on the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. It is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea (in the east), Algeciras Bay (in the west) and the Strait of Gibraltar (in the south). The coastline is 12 km. In the north it borders with Spain; the length of the border is 1.2 km. The greatest length of Gibraltar from the south (Cape Europe) to the north is 4.8 km., From west to east - up to 1.2 km. Area - 6.5 square meters. km

Nature.

Gibraltar is a narrow rocky cape washed by sea waters; in the north, the rock is connected to land by a low sandy isthmus. The maximum height of the Gibraltar rock is 426 m. The rock is composed of Jurassic limestones and is replete with numerous tunnels and caves. The climate is Mediterranean, with mild winters and warm summers, with lots of sunny days. The average temperature of the hottest month (August) +23.9 degrees; the average temperature of the coldest month (January) +12.8 degrees. For about half a year, westerly winds blow that bring sunny, clear weather (if formed over the Azores and North Africa) or precipitation (if caused by Atlantic cyclones). In summer, the eastern winds (“Levant”) bring humidity and precipitation, and the southern ones (“Sirocco”) bring heat. Air masses from the north sometimes lead to a drop in temperature to 0 degrees in winter.

An average of 810 mm falls. precipitation, with half of the annual norm falling in November - January. The average annual rainfall provides approx. 15% of water requirements. Rainwater quickly seeps into porous limestone rocks and does not form a surface runoff, so there is not enough moisture.

Water scarcity and the lack of fertile soils on the rock led to a very limited species composition of vegetation and a relatively poor fauna. On almost bare limestone slopes, pines and wild olives grow; Cape Europe is covered with shrubs and herbaceous plants. There is an umbrella umbrella and wild palm palmito. Platans, figs, almonds, citrus fruits, and cacti are artificially grown. There are rabbits, small rodents, tailless Berber macaques. There are 16 species of birds, including Berber partridges. Migratory birds make a stop during migration to warm countries. The coastal waters are rich in fish, mainly mackerel and mackerel.

Population.

According to an estimate for July 2004, 27,833 people lived in Gibraltar, of which 18% were under the age of 15; 66.2% - from the age of 15 to 64 years and 15.8% - from 65 years of age and older. The average age of the population is 39 years, the average life expectancy is 79.52 years (76.65 years for men; 82.54 years for women). The annual population growth is estimated at 0.19%.

The birth rate is 10.99 per 1000 inhabitants; mortality rate - 9.05 per 1000 inhabitants. Infant mortality is estimated at 5.22 per 1000 newborns.

Over 21 thousand inhabitants are migrants (mostly of Spanish, Maltese or Portuguese, but also of Italian and German origin), approx. 4 thousand. - British (including military personnel), the rest - Moroccans and others. The official language is English, although residents speak Spanish (a dialect that has been influenced by the English language), Italian, Portuguese and others. Religiously, 77% of the population - catholics , 7% - Anglicans, 7% - muslims , 2% - Jews, etc.

Most of the population lives in the capital - the city of Gibraltar.

Control.

Gibraltar has been a British possession since 1713. It currently has the status of overseas territory of Great Britain, which enjoys internal self-government. The constitution is valid on May 30, 1969 (with subsequent amendments). The head of state of Great Britain is represented by the governor appointed by him (since May 27, 2003 - Francis Richards). He is responsible for foreign policy, defense, financial stability and ensuring internal order, is the commander in chief of the armed forces and approves laws adopted by parliament. The Governor also heads the administrative advisory body, the Council of Gibraltar.

Legislative power belongs to the governor and parliament - the House of Assembly, which deals with issues of internal development. 15 members of the House are elected by universal suffrage of the population over 18 years of age. British citizens and British citizens living in Gibraltar for at least 6 months have the right to vote. The House of Assembly also includes 2 members (Secretary for Financial Development and Attorney General, appointed by the Governor). The term of office of the parliament is 4 years. The Chamber is headed by a speaker appointed by the Governor.

Government - Council of Ministers. The governor appoints the leader of a party or coalition with a majority in the House of Assembly to the post of chief minister. Since May 17, 1996, the post of chief minister has been occupied by leader Peter Caruana, leader of the Gibraltar Social Democrats. Members of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor after consultation with the Chief Minister from among the members of the House of Assembly.

Political parties.

There are several political parties.

Gibraltar Social Democrats(GSD) - a conservative party, exists since the beginning of the 1990s. Supports the existing constitutional of Gibraltar and opposes plans to impose joint British-Spanish sovereignty over the territory. The party defends the slogan about the right of the people of the people of Gibraltar to self-determination, although it advocates a more conciliatory attitude towards Spain than the opposition Socialist Labor Party. In the field of economics, GDS - for the wide attraction of foreign private capital, financial savings and tax cuts. In 1992-1996, the main opposition, since 1996 - the ruling party. In the November 28, 2003 elections, the State Duma received 51.5% of the vote and won 8 of the 15 seats in the House of Assembly. The leader is Peter Caruana (Chief Minister).

The Socialist Labor Party of Gibraltar(SLPG) - left-wing, formed in 1978 on the basis of the Democratic Movement and trade unions. He advocates democratic socialism, increasing social spending and raising pensions. The LPPG defends Gibraltar's right to self-determination and strongly objects to the joint British-Spanish sovereignty over the territory. Traditionally takes a tougher stance against Spain. In 1988-1996 - the ruling party, since 1996 - the main opposition. In the 2003 elections, she spoke in a bloc with the Liberal Party, with 39.7% of the vote. It has 5 seats in the House of Assembly. The leader is Joseph John Bossano.

The Liberal Party of Gibraltar(LP) - advocates granting Gibraltar city-state and dominion status. In the 2003 elections, she spoke in a bloc with the SLPG. Has 2 seats in the House of Assembly. The leader is Joseph Garcia.

The Labor Party of Gibraltar(LPG) - characterizes itself as a progressive socialist organization, created with the aim of providing stronger opposition to government policies. The party advocates for the expansion of housing construction and the provision of affordable housing for residents, seeks to limit the term for the post of chief minister and more publicity in financing political parties. Labor is opposed to dialogue with Spain regarding the constitutional future of Gibraltar and support the slogan of self-determination of the Liberalites. In the 2003 election, the party collected 8.3% of the vote. There are no seats in the House of Assembly. The leader is Daniel Fitham.

Reform Party- the left-wing party of the "green" sense, acts under the slogan of social justice.

The judicial system.

Gibraltar courts are divided into the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the Court of First Instance and the Magistrate's Court.

Defense and maintenance of order.

Great Britain is responsible for the defense of Gibraltar. Regular British infantry units stationed in this strategically advantageous territory were withdrawn in 1992 and replaced by the Royal Royal Gibraltar Regiment. His troops are recruited both in Gibraltar itself and in other units of the British army. Gibraltar remains the British Air Force and Navy base and is often visited by British and American military vessels. It has a telecommunications tracking post in North Africa. The Royal Hybrid Police is under the leadership of the Governor and is modeled on British police forces.

Economy.

Gibraltar is deprived of mineral resources, and its economy is developing, first of all, due to maritime trade, development of the financial offshore sector and its position as a center for holding international conferences and meetings. In the early 2000s, a structural turn was made in favor of developing the private sector and reducing the state.

GDP is estimated at $ 500 million, which corresponds to $ 17,500 per capita. 25-30% of GDP falls on the financial sector, ship services and tourism (about 7 million tourists a year), 10% - on the telecommunications sector. The unemployment rate in 2001 was estimated at 2%.

Due to the small size of the territory and the infertility of soils, virtually no commodity agricultural products are produced in Gibraltar. 60% of the nearly 15 thousand workers (including non-migrant workers) are employed in the service sector, 40% in industry (including ship repair and tobacco). In 2001, 100 million kWh was produced. electricity consumed - 93 million kWh.

Exports (136 million US dollars) are significantly inferior to imports (1.743 billion US dollars). Oil (51%), light industry products (41%), etc. are exported (mainly re-export). Goods are sent, first of all, to Germany, France, Great Britain, Turkmenistan, Switzerland, Spain. Fuel, industrial and food products are imported, the main partners are Spain, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, the Netherlands, France, Germany, Romania.

Budget revenues amount to $ 307 million, expenditures - $ 284 million. The monetary unit is the Gibraltar pound, the rate of which is equivalent to the British pound, which is also freely circulating.

The length of paved roads is 29 km. They lead to the neighboring Spanish city of La Linea and around the Rock of Gibraltar. Gibraltar is an important seaport. The merchant fleet includes 133 vessels with a displacement of St. 1000 BRT each (mainly owned by foreign firms). There is an airport built on an embankment in the sea.

In 2002, there were 24,521 telephone lines in use, 9797 mobile phones were in use. There were 6 radio stations and 1 television station in Gibraltar. There were 6,200 Internet users.

The culture.

The culture of Gibraltar reflects the diverse origins of its inhabitants. Although the migrants are influenced by Spanish and English, ethnically the inhabitants of Gibraltar are descendants of immigrants from Genoa, Malta, Portugal and Germany. They were supplemented by Sephardic Jews, North Africans, and Indians. Close cultural ties have historically been maintained with Spain, and male immigrants have often married Spanish women. However, the external manifestations of everyday life are close to English. In customs and in art, the influence and interconnection of English and Spanish cultures is felt. Spanish style prevails in architecture and music, theater and cinema are based on English traditions.

Training is conducted in English. Education for children aged 5–15 years is compulsory. In addition to general public and private schools, there is a vocational school. Those seeking higher education go mainly to the UK.

Sports are very popular, especially football, field hockey and basketball, as well as swimming, rowing and sailing.

The national holiday is celebrated on September 10. On that day in 1967, a referendum was held in which residents rejected joining Spain and spoke out for maintaining ties with Britain.

A daily newspaper is published in English and weekly newspapers in English and Spanish. The official government body is the weekly Gibraltar Gazette, the most popular being the Gibraltar Coronal, founded in 1801.

History.

Gibraltar before capture by Great Britain.

Ancient people came to the territory of Gibraltar approx. 40 thousand years ago and are believed to have taken refuge in numerous rock caves. In one of the caves, a Neanderthal skull was discovered. However, due to lack of water, long-term parking was not created here. In 2–1 thousand BC Gibraltar was known to the ancient peoples of the Mediterranean as the end of the world. The Phoenicians considered the rock one of the "pillars of Melkart", and the Greeks - one of the Heracles pillars. Cretan, Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian sailors more than once reached this point and even broke up parking in Gibraltar, known as Calpe. But neither they nor the later Romans created permanent settlements on the inhospitable rock.

British colony.

In 1704, during the Spanish Succession War, Gibraltar was captured by the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet under the command of George Rook. The Spanish garrison surrendered after a short resistance. In 1713, under the Utrecht Treaty, Gibraltar was officially ceded to the British crown by Spain. Great Britain pledged not to transfer it to any other power, and in case of abandonment to return it to Spain. Most Spanish residents left the cliff and settled in the city of San Roque in the neighboring province of Cadiz. A British military garrison was stationed in Gibraltar and immigrants from various Mediterranean countries, Sephardic Jews, Moroccans, and others were resettled.

Spain did not give up hope of regaining Gibraltar. She undertook several sieges of the fortress, right up to the Spanish-French “great siege” of 1779–1783. All of them failed, and, according to the Versailles Peace of 1783, the rock remained British possession. During the Napoleonic Wars, during the continental blockade, Gibraltar served as a transshipment point, where British goods entered the ship’s holds under the flag of other countries and were sent on their way.

In 1830, Gibraltar was officially declared a colony of Great Britain. Its significance increased even more after the discovery in 1869 Suez Canal . The possession of a rock made it possible to control shipping in the Mediterranean.

The administration of the colony was wholly in the hands of the British governor, who simultaneously led the British garrison. The Executive Council was chaired by the Governor.

In the 20th century. Spain again began to claim Gibraltar. For the first time, she raised the question of his return in 1940. When the Queen of Great Britain visited the colony in 1954, on the 200th anniversary of the capture of Gibraltar, the Spanish authorities closed their consulate and imposed restrictions on freedom of movement between Gibraltar and Spain. In 1956, the Spanish side formally claimed the colony. In the 1960s, new sanctions followed, including a ban on crossing the border with cars, etc. The question was brought up in UN , where the Spanish demand for the restoration of the territorial integrity of Spain and the transfer of Gibraltar to it was supported by Latin American countries. The UN General Assembly adopted a resolution in support of Spain. By decision of the UN, in 1966 Great Britain and Spain began negotiations on the future of Gibraltar, but they did not produce results. Groups of supporters of accession to Spain (“Palomos”) launched a protest campaign in the colony. However, at a referendum on September 10, 1967, the vast majority of the Liberal People (12,138 against 44) voted against the transfer of Spanish sovereignty.

Self management.

In 1964, Gibraltar received a constitution. A parliament — the House of Assembly — was created in the colony, and a government was formed, led by chief minister Joshua Hassan, leader of the Gibraltar Civil Rights Development Association (AHLP), later transformed into a Labor Party. In 1969, a new constitution was adopted, introducing full internal self-government. The Government of Gibraltar was led by Major Robert Peliza, leader of the British Integration Party. Recalling the will of the population, Great Britain refused to recognize the resolution of the UN General Assembly of December 18, 1968, urging it to transfer the territory of Spain in early 1969.

In 1980, at a meeting of British and Spanish foreign ministers. In Lisbon, with the participation of the representatives of the Gibraltar administration, an agreement was reached on the resumption of negotiations and the lifting of Spanish sanctions. In 1982, the border was partially open for a pedestrian passage. In 1985, in connection with the entry of Spain into The EU , Great Britain agreed to discuss with Spain the future of Gibraltar, including the issue of sovereignty.

Gibraltar in the 21st century

New dissatisfaction from Spain was met by the visits of British nuclear vessels in the summer of 2004. In October 2004, a new round of negotiations was proposed to discuss regional cooperation.

Gibraltar

General information

Gibraltar is the overseas territory of Great Britain in the south of the Iberian Peninsula (the only colonial possession in Europe), which includes the Rock of Gibraltar (one of the Hercules Pillars, Mount Musa on the African coast) and the isthmus connecting the rock with the Iberian Peninsula.

The Rock of Gibraltar (height 426 m.) Stretched for 5 km. between the Mediterranean Sea and Algeciras Bay. From the side of the strait, the rock looks like a powerful ridge with a steep eastern and more gentle western slope, which has the city and port of Giblartar. Gibraltar is one of the most important strategic centers

The name "Gibraltar" supposedly comes from the name of the Arab commander Tariq ibn Seyid - Mount Tariq (Djibraltar).

It borders with Spain in the north. In the east it is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, in the south and west by the Strait of Gibraltar.

Territory - 6.5 square meters. km

The population is 28 875 people. (2008).

Language: English (State), Spanish, Portuguese.

Indigenous migrants are mostly descendants of the Spaniards and Arabs (Moors).

A significant share is made up of legal and illegal migrants - Moroccans, Indians, Pakistanis, Africans.

Gibraltarians are UK and EU citizens.

Gibraltar has long been ruled by the Moors (Maghreb Arab-Berbers), who captured the rock in 711.

Spain took possession of Gibraltar in 1602, but in 1704 it was captured by Great Britain (finally in 1713 - the Utrecht Peace Treaty).

In 1830, Gibraltar received the status of a colony. On September 10, 1967, in a referendum, the inhabitants of the colony voted to remain in British possession.

Its territory is not covered by the common agricultural policy of the EU, Schengen agreements, nor is it a common customs territory of the EU (there is no VAT).

It occupies a strategic position in the strait: the British naval and air base (NATO), a transit port, and a tourist center.

The old quarters of Gibraltar are located on the side of a mountain (the remains of a fortress have been preserved). In architecture, the Spanish and Moorish styles are pronounced.

The only place in Europe where monkeys (magoths) live in the wild.

In the history of European colonialism and especially the British colonial empire, Ireland occupies a special place. At the end of the XII century. she became the object of systematic expansion from neighboring England and over the following centuries was turned into its colony. Thus began the first and longest colonial epic in European history, the echoes of which are clearly heard to this day. Initially, the British government instead of resolving the ethnopolitical conflict preferred a forceful solution to the Irish problem. Rebellions and protests were suppressed, the indigenous population of the country was discriminated against.

The Irish question is the problem of the national independence and unity of Ireland, which arose as a result of the conquest and colonial enslavement of this country by England. It deprived the Irish people of their nation-state, subjugating the English crown to their supreme power. Another part of the Irish question is the religious-political division, which set Protestants and Catholics against each other. Barg M.A. A study on the history of English feudalism in the XI-XIII centuries. M., 1992 .-- p. 12.

The 12th century was a fatal period for Ireland, which drastically changed the entire course of the country's historical development. Over the centuries of English colonization, the Irish have almost lost their native language and often use dialect English. During the English dominion over all of Ireland, due to repression and famine, many millions of Irish people moved to other countries, especially to America.

The history of this country is instructive in many ways. It testifies to the tragic fate of the people, who turned out to be a victim of foreign conquest in the 12th century and who fully experienced the burden of centuries of colonial exploitation and national oppression. The wounds inflicted by the Irish people by centuries of colonial rule have not healed to this day. The origins of the continued dismemberment of Ireland, the acute social and political conflicts in its six northern counties remaining in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the violence and arbitrariness suffered by civil rights defenders, go back to the depths of history. They are rooted in the still-unexplored consequences of Ireland's submission to British capitalism.

Another characteristic feature of Irish history, which makes it very relevant from the point of view of learning the lessons of the past and understanding many modern social processes, is the stubborn, continuous resistance of the masses to national oppression, which has been gaining strength with each century, constantly intertwined with social protest against exploitation. This heroic struggle of the Irish people for the freedom and independence of the country earned him deep sympathy and respect from the world progressive public. It culminated in, if not complete, then at least partial victory, the liberation of a significant part of the country, the conquest of the basic conditions for the independent development of Ireland. The search by the progressive forces of the Irish nation for ways to create a national economy and ways to overcome the consequences of colonialism is very instructive. Telegin E.P. The Liberation Struggle of the Irish People in the Last Third of the 17th Century. (Irish Uprising 1689 - 1691 gg.). Gorky, 1980 .-- p. 33.

WAR WITH IRELAND

After the threat to peace within England was destroyed, Cromwell set out on a campaign in Ireland in August 1649. Back in March, he was appointed commander of the Irish army and at the same time a lieutenant - general of Ireland. Thanks to these positions, Cromwell received a salary of about thirteen thousand pounds a year.

Cromwell's army totaled 12 thousand people. The soldier was encouraged and encouraged. They were paid all the salaries - debts for several months. In Ireland, they were promised lands and unheard of treasures. If robbery and looting were prohibited in England, then in Ireland it was even encouraged.

On July 11, a farewell ceremony took place. In Whitehall, officers and members of parliament gathered. At five in the evening the army set off. In Bristol, Cromwell said goodbye to his family - Elizabeth and eldest son Richard. He regretted that Richard did not have his wife - Dorothy, whom he madly loved and called "daughter." Cromwell was calm, as if on a peace trip. To Dorothy's father, Richard Mayor, he wrote these days:

“I am very glad to hear that everything is fine with you and that our children are going to go relax and eat cherries; for my daughter this is completely excusable, I hope she has good reason for this. I assure you, sir, I wish her well and believe that she knows this. I ask you, tell her that I expect from her frequent letters; of which I hope to find out how your whole family is doing ... I hand you my son and I hope you will be a good leader to him ... I want him to become more serious, time demands it ... ”

Soon, however, family affairs had to be forgotten. Ahead was Ireland.

The war in Ireland was the first colonial war of the English Republic. In its cruelty, she surpassed everything that Ireland experienced in all its long-suffering history. Recall that the conquest of Ireland by the English feudal lords began in the XII century and stretched for several centuries, right up to the revolution itself.

Taking advantage of the disagreements in the camp of the rebels, and, above all, between Catholics and Protestants, as well as the material superiority of forces, Cromwell in Ireland led the war "to extermination." Sometimes entire garrisons of surrendered fortresses were shot.

On September 3, Cromwell's army approached the Drogheda fortress, which was considered the strongest of the Irish fortresses. It consisted of two parts separated by a river - southern and northern. The southern part was fortified by ancient thick walls that reached 12 feet in height. It was impossible to get into the main, northern part of the fortress without capturing the Mill Mount citadel, located on a high hill and fortified with hedges and embankments.

Arthur Eston, the old warrior who lost his leg in one of the battles, commanded the garrison of the fortress, but also did not leave military service after that.

Cromwell had more than 10 thousand people, in the fortress - about 3 thousand. Cromwell prepared for the siege for six whole days - Drogheda was the key to Northern Ireland, and it had to be taken at all costs.

“Sir, in order to prevent the bloodshed, I believe it is right to demand that the fortress be transferred to my hands.” In case of refusal, you will have no reason to blame me. I await your reply and remain your servant. O. Cromwell.

Estonia refused. However, Cromwell, obviously, did not count on anything else. The assault on the fortress began.

The first two attacks choked. Colonel Castle was killed, along with two other officers leading the attack. And only the third attack brought success.

“In truth, in the heat of action, I forbade the soldiers to spare anyone who was captured in the city with weapons in their hands, and I think that they killed about 2,000 people that night. Some of them ran across the bridge to another part of the city, where about a hundred of them captured the bell tower of St. Petra. When they were asked to surrender, they refused, after which I ordered to set fire to the bell tower, and one could hear one of them shouting there: "God cursed me, God punished me."

The next day, two other belfries were surrounded, on one of which there were 120-140 people; however, they refused to surrender, and we, knowing that hunger would force them to do this, set up only a guard around them so that they could not run away until their stomachs made them go down ... When they surrendered, their officers were killed, every tenth of the soldiers was put to death, and the rest were sent by ships to Barbados.

I am convinced that there is a fair judgment of God over these barbarians and bastards who stained their hands with such a huge amount of innocent blood, and that this will lead to the prevention of bloodshed for the future, which is sufficient justification for those actions that otherwise could not cause nothing but reproaches of conscience and regret. The officers and soldiers of this garrison were the color of the army and they strongly hoped that our attack on this fortress would lead to our death ... Now let me tell you how this business was carried out. In the hearts of some of us, there is a belief that great things are not accomplished as a result of strength and power, but because of the spirit of the Lord. What caused our people to take the storm with such courage was the spirit of God, which instilled courage in our people and deprived it of our enemies. In the same way, he brought courage to enemies and took it back, and again instilled courage in our people, as a result of which we achieved this happy success, the glory of which belongs to God. "

And soon after that, one after another, the fortresses of Dendalk, Trim and others surrendered. After some time, the whole of Northern Ireland was conquered.

On October 1, Cromwell approached Wexford Fortress, the port closest to the shores of England and the ancient center of piracy.

Negotiations dragged on for several days. The commandant of the garrison at first agreed to surrender the fortress, but on certain conditions. Then, having received reinforcements, he began to dodge, to drag time. An invaluable service to the British was rendered by an Irish traitor who showed them the way to the fortress.

On October 11, seven thousand foot soldiers and two thousand cavalry soldiers broke into Wexford. The garrison defended itself, but the forces were too unequal.

“Our troops,” Cromwell wrote in his report to the speaker, “defeated them. and then betrayed to the sword all who stood in their way. Two boats, filled with enemies to capacity, tried to sail away, but sank, thereby killing about three hundred. I believe that the enemy lost at least two thousand people; and I believe that not more than twenty of ours were killed from the beginning to the end of the operation. "

The soldiers of the English army did not spare anyone. They robbed, set fire to houses, even killed women, old people and children. They mercilessly dealt with the monks and priests who tried to reason with them.

Cromwell, seeing that the city was turning into ruins, did not stop the soldiers, although he was going to use Wexford for wintering.

Two days after the battle, he wrote to Lentall:

“Yes, really, this is very unfortunate, we wished good to this city, hoping to use it for your needs and the needs of your army, and not to ruin it so much, but God judged otherwise. In the unexpected grace of providence, in his just anger, he directed the sword of his revenge on him and made him the prey of soldiers who forced many to redeem the atrocities committed against poor Protestants with blood. ”

Cromwell did not have a chance to meet the winter in Wexford, he moved on - first to the west, then to the south. Some fortresses immediately surrendered, others fought stubbornly.

Waterford, a port city, resisted with particular stubbornness. On November 14, Cromwell wrote: “Hardly one of my forty officers is now ill, and we have lost so many worthy ones that our hearts are filled with sorrow.”

Cromwell himself became ill, as he reported in a letter to Richard Mayor, not forgetting to complain that Dorothy writes to him very rarely. This disease made itself known to Cromwell until his death.

As a result of the conquests of 1649-1652, Ireland was completely devastated. Of the one and a half million people, just over half are left in it. Not one thousand Irish were forcibly taken to the American colonies of England and turned there into "white slaves." The subsequent massive confiscation of the lands of the rebels was handed over to the English owners of 2/3 of Irish territory. This large land fund was intended to satisfy the claims of state creditors, mainly City cash aces, as well as to pay off army debt.

Thus, the English conquest of Ireland was a feudal expansion, the purpose of which was to “acquire land” and create a feudal colony. As a result of the English invasion of Ireland in the XII century. almost 1/3 of the lands became the property of English secular and spiritual feudal lords, who began to settle it; the king appropriated the rights of the supreme owner in relation to the possessions of the barons and included them in his hierarchy. In England, the 40s and early 50s, on the one hand, the once revolutionary army was transformed into an army of colonialists, on the other hand, a new layer of noblemen, the landlords of Ireland, was created, which became the backbone of the reaction in England itself and sought to restore as soon as possible her traditional system of noble domination.

Millions of dead, twisted fates, tears of despair and endless thirst for revenge - 8 centuries of tragedy. There is no family that would not lose a loved one in the war of independence against the hated England. Telegin E.P. The liberation struggle of the Irish people in the last third of the 17th century. (Irish Uprising 1689 - 1691). Gorky, 1980 .-- p. 34.

In 1713, the War of the Spanish Succession ended, its results were fixed in a series of treaties and agreements. Under the Utrecht Peace Treaty, signed on July 13, 1713, which included several additional derivative treaties and agreements, Philip V was recognized king of Spain in exchange for guarantees that Spain and France would not unite under one crown. The parties also exchanged territories: Philip V retained the overseas territories of Spain, but abandoned the Southern Netherlands, Naples, Milan and Sardinia in favor of Austria; Sicily and parts of the Milanese lands - in favor of Savoy; from Gibraltar and Menorca - in favor of the UK. In addition, the UK received an exclusive right to trade slaves with non-Hispanic population in Spain for a period of 30 years (the so-called "asiento"). Regarding Gibraltar (Article X), the treaty stipulated that the city, fortress and port (but not the mainland) were transferred to Britain “forever, without exceptions and obstacles”. The agreement also indicated that if Britain wanted to abandon Gibraltar, it should be offered primarily to Spain.

In 1720, the Spaniards again made an attempt to return Gibraltar.

According to the Seville Treaty of 1729, the Spaniards renounced their rights to Gibraltar, after which they confined themselves to completely isolating it from the mainland, strengthening the Sanrok lines, whose flanks were covered by forts.

The most serious and widespread attempt was made by the Spanish-French to conquer Gibraltar in 1779. At the end of 1779, Gibraltar was attacked from land and sea, and the French-Spanish fleet in the number of 24 ships based on Brest, and 35, relying on Cadix, deprived the fortress of support from the metropolis. From land, Gibraltar was imposed by General Mendoza with 14 thousand Spaniards, and from the sea a close blockade was supported by the squadron of Admiral Barcelo. The garrison of the fortress consisted of 5400 people. Armament - 452 guns of various calibers. The commandant was an energetic engineer, General J. Elliot.

On January 11, 1780, Spanish batteries from the neutral strip opened fire on the northern part of the fortress, and from that day the siege lasted until January 15, 1783. The fight began in fact from the end of 1779, when Admiral Rodney was sent from the English Channel, heading 15 ships to escort a large caravan of transports with troops, food and ammunition. Rodney was to leave reinforcements and supplies in Gibraltar and Minorca, and then follow with most of the fleet to the West Indies. Alexander, Marc. Gibraltar: Conquered by No Enemy. - Stroud, Glos: The History Press, 2008, pp. 159-160

Near Cape Finisterre Rodney met an enemy convoy, destined for Cadix, and captured him. The storm was divided by the Kadik fleet, and at Cape Sanvincent, the Spanish admiral Juan de Langara was left with only 11 ships. On January 16, Rodney attacked them, seized part, and destroyed part. The Brest fleet was inactive, and Rodney on January 27 unhindered brought his caravan and prizes to Gibraltar harbor. And Admiral Barcelo retired under the protection of Algeziras. Jackson W. The Rock of the Gibraltarians - Cranbury, New Jersey: Associated University Presses, 1986, pp 196

The siege and siege of the fortress continued until February 15, 1784 and was stopped due to the conclusion of a preliminary peace treaty at Versailles.

After the Great Siege of Gibraltar, the civilian population of less than a thousand people began to increase rapidly. This was facilitated by the economic potential of the territory and the opportunity to seek refuge from the Napoleonic Wars. The loss of the North American colonies by Britain in 1776 led to the redirection of trade flow to new markets in India and the East Indies. The most popular route east went through Egypt, even before the Suez Canal was built, and Gibraltar was the first British port along the way. New shipping operations dramatically increased the importance of Gibraltar as a trading port, while it also provided shelter for the inhabitants of the western Mediterranean fleeing the Napoleonic Wars. Among the immigrants, a significant part was made by the Genoese who left their homeland after the annexation by Napoleon of the Genoese Republic. By 1813, almost a third of the population of the city were Genoese and Italians. Krieger, Larry S .; Neill, Kenneth; Jantzen, Steven L. World History: Perspectives On The Past. - Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1990, p159 There were 20% of Portuguese, 16.5% of Spaniards, 15.5% of Jews, 13% of Britons, and 4% of Menorca natives. Young Benjamin Disraeli described the inhabitants of Gibraltar as follows: "Moors in rainbow-colored costumes, Jews in long robes and yarmulkes, Genoese, highlanders and Spaniards."

During the war against the First French Empire, Gibraltar first served as the base of the British fleet, blockade the ports of Cadiz, Cartagena and Toulon, and then as a transshipment base through which the British troops were supplied during the Pyrenees wars from 1807 to 1814. In the summer of 1801, the French and Spanish squadrons made two attempts to break through the blockade and fought with the British squadron at Gibraltar. For the Spaniards, it was expensive: they lost the two largest ships, which mistook each other for the enemy, collided and exploded, killing nearly 2,000 sailors. Two years later, Lord Nelson arrived in Gibraltar, busy searching for the French squadron of Admiral de Villeneuve. They met in the Battle of Trafalgar, in which Nelson was killed and Villeneuve was captured. Arriving in June 1803, Nelson led the blockade of French and Spanish ports, but spent some time on the beach in the city. October 28, 1805 in Gibraltar returned HMS Victory with the body of Nelson; Admiral Collingwood’s report of the victory in the Battle of Trafalgar and the death of Nelson was published in GibraltarChronicle, which became the first newspaper to announce this to the world (two weeks earlier than TheTimes).

After the Battle of Trafalgar, Gibraltar became a major supply base, providing the forces participating in the Spanish rebellion against Napoleon. The French invasion of Spain in 1808 required the British garrison of Gibraltar to cross the border and destroy the fortifications surrounding the bay, as well as the old fortifications on the isthmus, to prevent them from being used to besiege the city or block the bay using coastal batteries. French troops reached San Roque north of Gibraltar, but did not attempt to attack the city, considering it impregnable. They besieged Tarifa, located lower on the coast, but retreated a month later. From that moment, Gibraltar did not face a military threat for about a hundred years. Jackson, 1986, p. 370

In the 19th century, Gibraltar maintained generally friendly relations with Spain. British soldiers were forbidden to cross the border, but officers were freely allowed into Spanish territory. The civilian population of the city enjoyed the same freedom, some even acquired real estate in neighboring San Roque. Hawty, 1844, p. 219 The garrison started the British tradition of fox hunting, in 1812 holding the first RoyalCalpeHunt with the participation of British officers and Spanish nobility. The main stumbling block at this time was smuggling. The problem took on a different meaning when Spain imposed a duty on foreign goods in an effort to protect its own industrial production. The tobacco trade was also taxed heavily, which brought significant revenue to the Spanish treasury. The inevitable result of this policy was that Gibraltar, where tobacco was cheap, became the center of its illicit supply. In a depressed economy, smuggling played the role of one of the main components of trade; Mid-19th century Irish traveler Martin Haverty called Gibraltar "a great source of smuggling for Spain." General Robert Gardiner, who served as governor from 1848 to 1855, in a letter to British Prime Minister Henry Palmerston described the picture that he could see every day: “Immediately after the gates opened, Spanish men, women and children, horses and rare carts that continued to move around the city, passing from store to store, until about noon. At the entrance, they had the usual size for a person, and at the exit turned out to be wrapped in cotton goods, supplemented with bags of tobacco. Pack animals and carts entered lightly, and walked back, hardly moving under the weight of their burden. The Spanish authorities played their part in this movement, taking bribes from everyone who crossed the border - the intentions of the people and the people themselves were well known to them. ” Hills, 1974, p. 374

They managed to stifle the problem of smuggling by introducing duties on imported goods, which made them less attractive for illegal trade. The new source of income also allowed raising funds to improve water supply and sanitation. Hills, 1974, p. 380 Living conditions in Gibraltar, despite reforms, remained poor. Colonel Sawyer, who served in the Gibraltar garrison in the 1860s, described the city as "the center of small, crowded dwellings with poor ventilation and dampness," "over 15,000 people crowded into a space less than a square mile." Although sewage pipes were laid in the city, the summer shortage of water made them practically useless, and poor citizens sometimes did not have the means to wash themselves. One of the doctors claimed that the street was more preferable than the homes of some poor people in Gibraltar. In 1865, a sanitary commission started working in the city, work began on new water supply and sewage systems, and this allowed to avoid major epidemics. In the Rock of Gibraltar underground storage facilities for water with a total volume of 22.7 million liters were arranged. Soon, other municipal services appeared in the city: in 1857, gas supply was organized, in 1870 the city received telegraph communication, and in 1897, electrification began. Gibraltar received development and education: in 1860, there were 42 schools in the city. Jackson, 1986, p. 247

So, by the end of the 19th century, the inhabitants of Gibraltar were officially named the “Gibrants” for the first time. Jackson, 1986, p. 248 The number of indigenous inhabitants of the city only in 1830 for the first time exceeded the number of citizens born outside its borders, but by 1891, 75% of the total population of 19 011 people were born in Gibraltar. Separation of the migrants as a separate group was required due to lack of land for building houses and the need to control the number of civilians, since Gibraltar was primarily a military fortress. Decrees of 1873 and 1885 ruled that a child of foreign nationals cannot be born in Gibraltar, none of the foreigners can get the right to settle in Gibraltar, and only those born in Gibraltar initially have the right to reside in the city, the rest require special permission, except for those who is an employee of the British crown. In addition to 14,244 people from the city, there were 711 British, 695 Maltese and 960 immigrants from other British dominions in the city. In addition to them, 1869 people belonged to the Spanish nation, of which 1341 were women. Portuguese, Italians, French and Moroccans made up the remaining small part of the population (about 500 people). Jackson, 1986, p. 249