The climate in the Caucasus varies both vertically (altitude) and horizontally (latitude and location). Temperatures generally decrease as altitude increases and gets closer to the sea. The average annual temperature in Sukhum (Abkhazia) at sea level is 15 degrees Celsius, and on the slopes of Mount Kazbek, at an altitude of 3700 m, the average annual air temperature drops to −6.1 degrees Celsius. On the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus Range it is 3 degrees Celsius colder than on the southern slopes. In the high mountainous regions of the Lesser Caucasus in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, there is a sharp contrast in temperatures between summer and winter due to a more continental climate.
Precipitation increases from east to west in most areas. Altitude also plays an important role: mountains tend to receive more rainfall than low-lying areas. The northeastern regions (Dagestan) and the southern part of the Lesser Caucasus are dry. The absolute minimum annual precipitation is 250 mm, in the northeastern part of the Caspian Lowland. The western part of the Caucasus is characterized by high rainfall. There is more precipitation on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus Range than on the northern slopes. Annual precipitation in the western Caucasus ranges from 1000 to 4000 mm, while in the Eastern and Northern Caucasus (Chechnya, Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Ossetia, Kakheti, Kartli, etc.) precipitation ranges from 600 to 1800 mm . The absolute maximum annual precipitation is 4100 mm in the region of Meskheti and Adjara. Precipitation levels in the Lesser Caucasus (southern Georgia, Armenia, western Azerbaijan), not including Meskheti, vary from 300 to 800 mm per year.
The Caucasus is known for its high snowfall, although the windward slopes receive much less snow. This is especially noticeable in the Lesser Caucasus, which is somewhat isolated from the influence of humidity coming from the Black Sea, and receives significantly less precipitation (including in the form of snow) than in the Greater Caucasus Mountains. On average, in winter the snow cover in the Lesser Caucasus Mountains ranges from 10 to 30 cm. Heavy snowfalls are recorded in the Greater Caucasus Mountains (in particular, on the southwestern slope). Avalanches are common from November to April.
Snow cover in some regions (Svaneti, in the northern part of Abkhazia) can reach 5 meters. The Achishkho region is the snowiest place in the Caucasus, with snow cover reaching a depth of 7 meters.
Landscape
The Caucasus Mountains have a varied landscape, which mainly varies vertically and depends on the distance from large bodies of water. The region contains biomes ranging from subtropical low-level swamps and glacial forests (Western and Central Caucasus) to high-mountain semi-deserts, steppes and alpine grasslands in the south (mainly Armenia and Azerbaijan).
On the northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus, oak, hornbeam, maple and ash are common at lower altitudes, while birch and pine forests predominate at higher elevations. Some of the lowest areas and slopes are covered with steppes and grasslands.
The slopes of the Northwestern Greater Caucasus (Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, etc.) also contain spruce and fir forests. In the high mountain zone (about 2000 meters above sea level) forests predominate. Permafrost (glacier) usually begins at approximately 2800-3000 meters.
On the southeastern slope of the Greater Caucasus, beech, oak, maple, hornbeam and ash are common. Beech forests tend to dominate at higher altitudes.
On the southwestern slope of the Greater Caucasus, oak, beech, chestnut, hornbeam and elm are common at lower altitudes, coniferous and mixed forests (spruce, fir and beech) are common at higher altitudes. Permafrost begins at an altitude of 3000-3500 m.
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The Achishkho mountain range is the closest ridge to Red Polyana and the most picturesque. The highest mountain, Achishkho, has a height of 2391 meters above sea level. An interesting fact about the name of the ridge: “Achishkho” translated from Abkhaz means “horse”. This is confirmed by the view from below, from Polyana to the mountain range. If you look closely, you can see the outline of a horse. The most popular hiking route passes through a special place located on the mountainside, approximately 1800 meters above sea level, where there was a weather station from the 30s to the 90s.
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The Aibga mountain range is located on the territory of the Sochi National Park, on the eastern side of Krasnaya Polyana. The ridge extends over 20 kilometers and consists of four highest points called peaks. The most popular peak mountain among tourists is the Black Pyramid, 2375 meters above sea level. It has an unusual shape, which makes it especially popular among climbers. In addition, from the top of the mountain there is a wonderful, breathtaking landscape. Having conquered this mountain, you will see the valley of the Mzymta River, the peaks of Chugush and Pseashkho.
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One of the most beautiful resort places in our country is Dombay. The main attractions of this city are its picturesque places. The Mussa-Achitara ridge is considered the most picturesque ridge in this part of the Caucasus. In order to appreciate all the beauty that surrounds the guests of the resort, you need to climb the mountainside by cable car. From this place there is a wonderful picturesque view of the peaks and glaciers of the Main Range, the Teberda and Gonachkhiri valleys.
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Ine Peak is located near the place where the northern Dzhugurlutchat glacier originates. The name of the mountain is translated as “Needle”; the mountain got its name because of its pointed top; this unusual view for mountains attracts many tourists from all over the world. The top of Ine Peak is covered with snow all year round, and although its sheer cliffs are relatively difficult to conquer, the top of Ine Peak is quite a popular place among climbers. The height of the “needle” reaches 3455 meters, which is about 600 meters lower than the highest mountain of the Caucasus watershed ridge. It is best to view the mountain from the site of Mount Mussa-Achi-Tara; it is 400 meters lower than Ine Peak, but in exchange it can be reached by cable car.
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In the North Caucasus, among the Dombay glade, somewhat east of the Back (Small) Belalakai mountain, there is a peak called Sufrudzhu. The height of the mountain is 3871 m. A wide depression divides the massif into two even parts - Southern and Northern. Both peaks are clearly visible from the Musat-Cheri ski resort. The southern part was called Sufrudju's Tooth, which means "Tiger's Fang". The massif stretches for 3600 m and acts as the main attraction of the mountainous Dombay.
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Belalakai is a mountain located next to the village in Dombay, since the village is a resort. The mountain has become a symbol of this village and attracts a lot of tourists. Its height is 3861 meters. Although the height of this mountain is 200 meters lower than the highest in Abkhazia, it is no less a landmark. Belalakai owes its fame to quartz. Most of the mountain consists of dark soil rocks and dark granite, however, due to centuries-old geological processes, there are deposits of quartz on the mountain. It is this quartz that created the white stripes that adorn the top of this mountain; the white stripes of Belalakai are especially visible in late summer. Due to the beauty of the local landscapes, the mountain has been mentioned more than once in songs and poems.
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Dzhuguturluchat is a relatively small massif in the Greater Caucasus Range. The mountain range rose to a height of 3921 meters, which is only 120 meters less than the highest point on the Caucasus ridge. In the highest areas of the mountain range there are herds of aurochs; it was they who gave these mountains the name “Dzhugurluchat” - which translates as: “herd of aurochs”. The mountain range originates from the Dombay plateau, however, the most beautiful places open up from a place called “Mussa-Achi-Tara”; this is where most tourists gather.
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Cheget is one of the highest mountains in the Caucasus. Its height reaches about 3770 meters. It is a popular tourism destination among travelers. From the mountain you can enjoy the view of the highest peak in Europe – Elbrus. Another feature of Mount Cheget is the second line of the cable car, which passes through an area where there is snow that does not melt throughout the year.There are three lines of the cable car in total. The height of the first reaches about 1600 meters. It is one of the most popular for tourists who come to Cheget to enjoy the view of Elbrus.
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This mountain, after Elbrus, is the second most popular among climbers. This is because it is also quite high - 4454 meters above sea level.
There are several ways to get to the mountain: by cable car or on foot. Tourists who choose the first method can use the Cheget cable car at the final point, where small cafes are located. The second and more difficult path, which takes several hours, is from the Cheget meadow along a path already crowded with tourists. However, it is better to hit the road with an experienced guide, otherwise there is a chance of getting lost in the mountains.
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The North Caucasus will captivate many tourists with its beauty and landscapes. Mount Semenov-Bashi, located in the east of the Caucasus Range, is no exception. In reality, it is just a protrusion 3602 m high above the ground. The mountain was named in honor of the Russian explorer P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. This man was a traveler and was the chairman of the Russian Geographical Society.
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Mount Chotcha is part of the Caucasus range, which is famous for its picturesque mountains and rocks. Chotcha, unlike other mountains, is divided into two parts, as if someone cut the mountain in the middle into two halves. Unlike mountains that have just a smaller mountain next to them, at first glance you can see that the mountain has one base on which there are two rocks. The rock in the foreground is lower than the back one; it is 3637 meters high, which is 400 meters lower than the highest mountain of the Caucasus range. The second rock is only three meters higher than the first, it is 3640 meters above sea level.
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Mount Ertsog is on the list of one of the most visited places in the Caucasus range. The Alibek River flows at the foot of the mountain; in addition to the mountain itself, this place has a very beautiful lowland. In the gorge where the river flows, a massive slope descends; it becomes especially beautiful in the spring, when the sun illuminates the slope full of bright green vegetation. Mount Erzog is part of the Teberdinsky ridge; the ridge itself encircles a lowland with a river and makes a very strong impression on tourists who visit it.
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Mount Sulokhat is located in the Dombay region and is one of the largest points of the Caucasian watershed ridge. The height of the mountain is 3439 meters, which is about 600 meters lower than the largest mountain on the Caucasus ridge. Mount Sulohat is surrounded by many legends, the most popular about the origin of the name of the mountain. In ancient times, the foot of the mountain was inhabited by the Alan tribe. In this tribe there lived a girl named Sulohat, she was of extraordinary beauty and courage and was the daughter of the leader of the tribe.
The Main Caucasian (Water Dividing) Range is a continuous mountain chain stretching more than 1,100 km from northwest to southeast from the Black Sea (Anapa region) to the Caspian Sea (Mount Ilkhydag northwest of Baku). The Caucasus Range divides the Caucasus into two parts: Ciscaucasia (North Caucasus) and Transcaucasia (South Caucasus).
The Main Caucasus Range separates the basins of the Kuban, Terek, Sulak and Samur rivers in the north and the Inguri, Rioni and Kura rivers in the south.
The mountain system that includes the Main Caucasus Range is called the Greater Caucasus (or Greater Caucasus Range), in contrast to the Lesser Caucasus, a vast highland located south of the Rioni and Kura valleys and connected directly with the highlands of Western Asia.
For a more convenient overview, the Caucasus ridge can be divided along its length from west to east into seven parts:
Black Sea Caucasus (from the Anapa meridian to the Fisht - Oshten mountain group - approx. 265 km),
Kuban Caucasus (from Oshten to the source of the Kuban) - 160 km,
Elbrus Caucasus, or western (Karachay-Circassian) Elbrus region (from the source of the Kuban to the peak of Adai-Khokh) - 170 km,
Terek (Kazbek) Caucasus (from Adai-Khokh to Barbalo) - 125 km,
Dagestan Caucasus (from Barbalo to the top of Sari-dag) - 130 km,
Samur Caucasus (from Sari-dag to Baba-dag) - approx. 130 km,
Caspian Caucasus (from Baba-dag to the peak of Ilkhydag) - approx. 170 km.
A more enlarged division is also accepted:
Western Caucasus (bounded from the east by Elbrus);
Central Caucasus;
Eastern Caucasus (bounded from the west by Kazbek).
The entire system of the Main Caucasus Range occupies approximately 2,600 km². The northern slope occupies about 1450 km², and the southern slope - about 1150 km².
The width of the Caucasus Range in the western (slightly west of Elbrus, and including the Elbrus mountain range) and eastern (Dagestan) parts is about 160...180 km, in the central - about 100 km; both ends taper greatly and are (especially the western) insignificant in width.
The highest is the middle part of the ridge, between Elbrus and Kazbek (average heights about 3,400 - 3,500 m above sea level); Its highest peaks are concentrated here, the highest of which - Elbrus - reaches an altitude of 5,642 m above sea level. m.; East of Kazbek and west of Elbrus, the ridge decreases, more significantly in the second direction than in the first.
In general, in height, the Caucasus Range significantly exceeds the Alps; it has no less than 15 peaks exceeding 5,000 m, and more than 20 peaks higher than Mont Blanc, the highest peak in all of Western Europe. The advanced elevations accompanying the Main Range, in most cases, do not have the character of continuous chains, but represent short ridges or mountain groups connected to the watershed ridge by spurs and broken in many places by deep river gorges, which, starting in the Main Range and breaking through the advanced elevations, descend to the foothills and emerge onto the plains.
Mount Elbrus from the air - the roof of Europe 
Thus, almost along its entire length (in the west - from the south, in the east - from the north) the watershed ridge is adjacent to a number of high basins, in most cases of lake origin, closed on one side by the heights of the watershed, as well as its spurs, and on the other - separate groups and short ridges of advanced hills, which in some places exceed the main chain in height.
On the northern side of the watershed, transverse basins predominate, and on the southern side, except for its western end, longitudinal basins predominate. It is also characteristic of the Caucasus Range that many of the primary peaks lie not on the Vodorazdelny ridge, but at the ends of its short spurs heading north (this is the position of the peaks Elbrus, Koshtan, Adai-Khokh, etc.). This is the so-called Lateral Caucasian Ridge, which stretches in the vast majority of cases (in many places) even below the Skalisty.
Northern slope of the Caucasus ridge
The northern, more developed slope of the Caucasus Range, formed by many spurs, generally adjacent almost perpendicular to the Main Range and separated by transverse deep valleys, reaches very significant development in the vicinity of Elbrus (Elbrus ledge). The most significant rise [Elbrus-Mineralovodskaya fault zone] is directed from this peak directly to the north, serves as a watershed between the waters of the Kuban (Azov) and Terek (Caspian Sea) and, descending with ledges further, spreads into the island mountains of Pyatigorye and the vast Stavropol Upland (the main rise forward ledges reaches the Pastbishchny ridge, bordering the horseshoe of the Kislovodsk basin, turns south (of Kislovodsk) to the east, along with gorges and river valleys, stretches to the Tersko-Sunzhensky interfluve - forming the Tersko-Sunzhensky upland, and further - up to the Andean ridge).
The northern slope is even more developed in the eastern part of the Caucasus ridge, where numerous, and very significant in height and length, its spurs form the vast mountainous country of Dagestan (Dagestan ledge) - a large mountainous region, closed by the high Andean, Sala-Tau and Gimryn (2334 m ) ridges. Gradually descending to the north, the northern slope is formed by many advanced hills, which in some places appear in the form of ridges and mountain spurs; These mountain ranges include the so-called Black Mountains (see) (Pasture Range), located north of the Main Range, at a distance of 65 km from it. The Black Mountains form gentle and long slopes, in most areas covered with dense forests (hence the name), and fall into steep cliffs to the south. Rivers flowing from the Main Range break through the Black Mountains through deep and narrow, very picturesque gorges (the Sulak Canyon is up to 1800 m deep); the height of this advanced chain, in general, is insignificant, although (in the west of the Dagestan ledge) in the upper reaches of the Ardon and Urukh, some of their peaks reach an altitude of more than 3,300 m above sea level (Kion-Khokh - 3,423 m, Kargu-Khokh - 3 350 m, Vaza-Khokh - 3,529 m (Rocky and Side ridges)).
view of the Caucasus Range from the Rosa Khutor base
The southern slope is particularly poorly developed in the western and eastern parts of the ridge, reaching quite significant orographic development in the middle, where it is adjacent to parallel hills that form the longitudinal valleys of the upper reaches of the Rioni, Enguri and Tskhenis-tskhali, and long spurs extending to the south, separating the Alazani basins , Iori and Kura.
The steepest and least developed section of the southern slope is where it falls towards the Alazani valley; The city of Zagatala, located at an altitude of 355 m at the southern foot of the Caucasus Range, is located in a straight line only 20 km from its crest, which here reaches an altitude of more than 3,300 m above sea level. The Caucasus Range is not particularly passable; Only at its western and eastern extremities are there convenient and low passes that are fully accessible all year round for communication.
Throughout the rest of the length, with the exception of the Mamison and Cross passes (see Georgian Military Road), the paths through the ridge in most cases are pack paths or even pedestrian paths, partly completely inaccessible for use in the winter season. Of all the passes, the most important is Krestovy (2,379 m), through which the Georgian Military Road passes.
Central Caucasus
Glaciers of the Caucasus
In terms of the number of glaciers, their area and size, the Caucasus Range is almost as good as the Alps. The largest number of significant glaciers is located in the Elbrus and Terek parts of the ridge, and there are about 183 glaciers of the first category in the Kuban, Terek, Liakhva, Rioni and Inguri basins, and 679 of the second category. In total in the Greater Caucasus, according to the “Catalog of Glaciers of the USSR” (1967 —1978), 2,050 glaciers with a total area of 1,424 km². The size of the Caucasian glaciers is very diverse, and some of them (for example, Bezengi) are almost as large as the Aletsch glacier in the Alps. The Caucasian glaciers nowhere descend as low as, for example, the glaciers of the Alps, and in this respect they present great diversity; Thus, the end of the Karaugom glacier descends to an altitude of 1,830 m above sea level, and the Shah-Dag glacier (ShahDag (4243 m), in the Bazar-Dyuzu region) - to an altitude of 3,320 m above sea level. The most famous glaciers of the Caucasus Range are:
Mount Fisht, Caucasus
Name of the glacier (Mountain from which it descends)
Bezengi (bass by Cherek Bezengisky) Shota Rustaveli peak, Shkhara
Dykh-Su [Dykh-Kotyu-BugoySu]
Karaugom (Urukh, bass. Terek) Adai-khoh
Tsaneri [Tsanner] (bass. Inguri) Tetnuld
Devdoraki (bass Amali) Kazbek
Big Azau (Baksan, Terek basin) Elbrus, southern shoulder
Snow Valley Jikiugankez
Malka and Baksan Elbrus, eastern shoulder
Tsey (Ardon, bass. Terek)
Lekhzyr [Lekzyr, Lekziri] (bass Inguri)
Ezengi (Yusengi)
Donguzorun-Cheget-Karabashi (west), Yusengi ridge (east)
Shkheldy glacier (Adylsu, Baksan basin)
Shhelda (4368 m),
Chatyntau (4411 m)
panorama of the Caucasus ridge 
During the Ice Age, the glaciers of the Caucasus Range were much more numerous and extensive than now; from the numerous traces of their existence, found far from modern glaciers, we can conclude that the ancient glaciers extended in length for 53, 64 and even up to 106.7 or more kilometers, descending into valleys to heights of 244...274 meters above sea level. Currently, most of the glaciers of the Caucasus Range are in a period of retreat, which has lasted for several decades.
Main Caucasus Range - Abkhazia
MAIN PEAKS AND GLACIERS OF THE CAUCASUS RIDGE
Bezengi is a mountainous region of Kabardino-Balkaria, the central, highest part of the Caucasus Mountains, including the Bezengi wall of the main Caucasus ridge and the side ridges adjacent to the north that form the Cherek Bezengi river basin.
Bezengi wall
The Bezengi Wall is a 42-kilometer mountain range, the highest section of the main Caucasus ridge. Usually the boundaries of the wall are considered to be the peaks Lyalver (in the west) and Shkhara (in the east).
To the north, the wall drops steeply to 3000 m to the Bezengi glacier (Ullu-Chiran). To the south, to Georgia, the terrain is complex, there are wall sections and high-altitude glacial plateaus.
Tops of the area
Bezengi wall
Lyalver (4350)
Yesenin Peak (4310)
Gestola (4860)
Katyntau (4974)
Dzhangitau (5085)
Sh. Rustaveli Peak (4960)
Shkhara (5068)
Mount Dykhtau, Side Range
Side ridge
Koshtantau (5152)
Krumkol (4676)
Tikhonov Peak (4670)
Mizhirgi (5025)
Pushkin Peak (5033)
Dykhtau (5204)
Warm corner
Gidan (4167)
Archimedes Peak (4100)
Georgia, Trinity Monastery near Mount Kazbek
Salynan-bashi (4348)
Ortokara (4250)
Peak Ryazan
Peak Brno (4100)
Misses-tau (4427)
Peak Cadets (3850)
Mount Shkhara
THE HIGHEST MOUNTAIN OF GEORGIA
Shkhara (Georgian: შხარა) is a mountain peak in the central part of the Main Caucasus (Watershed) Range, the highest point in Georgia. Elevation 5,068 m above sea level, some sources estimate 5,201 m. Located in Svaneti from the south and Bezengi in Kabardino-Balkaria from the north, on the border with Russia, approximately 90 km north of the city of Kutaisi. It is part of a unique 12-kilometer mountain range known as the Bezengi Wall.
It is composed of granites and crystalline schists. The slopes are covered with glaciers, on the northern slope there is the Bezengi glacier, on the southern slope there is the Shkhara glacier, from which the Inguri River partially originates. Popular mountaineering spot. Soviet climbers first climbed Shkhara in 1933.
At the foot of the southern slopes of Shkhara, at an altitude of 2,200 m above sea level, there is the village of Ushguli in the Mestia region of Svaneti, included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
MOUNT TETNULD Main Caucasus Range 
Tetnuld (Georgian: თეთნულდი “white mountain”) is a peak in the spur of the Bezengi Wall, the Main Caucasus Range in the Upper Svaneti region, Georgia, 2 km south of the peak of Gestola and the border of the Russian Federation (Kabardino-Balkaria).
Height - 4,869 m.
The peak is two-headed, composed of ancient crystalline rocks. The glaciers Oish, Nageb, (headwaters of the Inguri), Adish and others flow down from Tetnuld. The total area of glaciers is 46 km².
The regional center of Mestia is located 22 km west of the peak.
Mount Gestola
TSEISKY GLACIER
The Tsey glacier (Ossetian: Tsyæy tsiti) is a valley glacier on the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus, one of the largest and lowest-lying glaciers in the Caucasus.
The Tseysky glacier is located in North Ossetia and is fed mainly by the snow of Mount Adai-Khokh (4,408 m). The Tseysky glacier descends to a height of 2,200 m above sea level, that is, below the vast majority of glaciers in the Caucasus. Its length, together with the firn fields, is about 9 km, the area is 9.7 km². At the very bottom it is quite narrow, and above it it widens greatly, reaching 1 km in width. Constrained by rocks at an altitude of 2,500 m above sea level, it forms countless cracks and has several icefalls, but higher up its surface becomes smoother again.
The Tseysky glacier is formed from 2 large and 2 smaller branches. From the ice arch of the Tseya glacier flows the beautiful Tseya (Tseydon) river, which flows from west to east through a deep, picturesque gorge covered with pine forest. It flows into the Ardon on the left side.
Near the Tseysky glacier there are mountaineering camps and the Ossetia tourist center, as well as the Goryanka hotel, the SKGMI scientific station and a weather station. There are two cable cars leading to the glacier. Mountain climatic resort area - Tsey.
Many poems by both famous authors (for example, “Tseyskaya” by Yuri Vizbor) and folk ones are dedicated to the Tseysky glacier and gorge:
What a wonderful camp Tsey, /
I have many friends here. /
And the mountains are nearby - I won’t hide that. /
As soon as you step outside the threshold, /
Before the eyes of Adai-Khokh, /
And the gray block “Monk” overhead...
Mount Adai-Khokh
Friend, give thanks for the cup,
I hold the sky in my hand
Mountain air of the state
Drinking on the Tseysky glacier.
Nature itself keeps here
A clear trace of bygone times -
nineteenth year
Cleansing ozone.
And below from the pipes of Sadon
Gray smoke stretches out,
So that when it comes to me
This cold didn’t carry me away.
There under the roofs, like a net,
The rain breathes and trembles,
And along the line a trolley
Runs like a black bead.
I am present at the meeting
Two times and two heights,
And prickly snow on your shoulders
Old Tsei gives it to me.
Moscow, 1983. Arseny Tarkovsky
Mount Monk
MOUNTAIN Donguzorun-Cheget
Donguzorun-Cheget-Karabashi or Donguz-Orun is the top of the Main (or Watershed) Ridge of the Greater Caucasus, in the Elbrus region. Located in the Republic of Kabardino-Balkaria of the Russian Federation. Height - 4454 m.
Nearby, at an altitude of 3203 m, there is the Donguzorun mountain pass across the Main Range between the valleys of the Baksan (Russia) and Inguri (Georgia) rivers. At the foot of the Donguzorun-Cheget-Karabashi flows one of the tributaries of the Baksan - the Donguz-Orun River.
MOUNTAIN ACHISHKHO
Achishkho (Adyghe goat mountain: Achi - “goat”, shkho - “height”, “peak”.) (Nedezhui-Kushkh) is a mountain range in the Western Caucasus, located on the territory of the Krasnodar Territory of the Russian Federation. Height up to 2391 m (Mount Achishkho, 10 km northwest of Krasnaya Polyana).
The ridge is composed of clayey shales and volcanic (tuffaceous) rocks. The landscapes of the Achishkho ridge are characterized by ancient glacial landforms and ridge lakes (including karst ones), and there are waterfalls.
The ridge is located in a humid climate zone - the annual precipitation is up to 3000 mm (the highest value in Russia), the thickness of the snow cover reaches 10 m. The number of sunny days does not exceed 60-70 days a year.
The slopes of Achishkho are covered with broad-leaved, mainly beech, fir forests in the north, and mountain meadows on the tops.
The ridge is popular among hikers. There are dolmens.
Caucasian State Natural
biosphere reserve
The reserve is the legal successor of the Caucasian bison reserve, established on May 12, 1924, and is located in the Western Caucasus, on the border of the temperate and subtropical climatic zones. The total area of the reserve is more than 280 thousand hectares, of which 177.3 thousand hectares are in the Krasnodar Territory.
On February 19, 1979, by decision of UNESCO, the Caucasian Nature Reserve was given biosphere status, and in January 2008 it was named after Kh. G. Shaposhnikov. In 1999, the territory of the Caucasian State Natural Biosphere Reserve was included in the World Heritage List
Kuban hunting
In 1888, on behalf of the Grand Dukes Peter Nikolaevich and Georgiy Mikhailovich, about 80 thousand acres of land in the Greater Caucasus Range were leased from the forest dachas of the Ministry of State Property and the Kuban Regional Military Administration. An agreement was concluded with the Kuban Rada for the exclusive right of hunting in these territories for the grand dukes. Subsequently, the territory became known as the Grand Ducal Kuban Hunt.
A few years later, the princes stopped traveling to Kuban for health reasons, and then in 1892 they transferred the right to hunt to Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich, who began actively developing the territory.
Bison Reserve
In 1906, the expiring lease period for the Kuban hunting territory was extended for another three years, after which it was planned to divide these lands between the villages of the Kuban Cossacks. In 1909, Kh. G. Shaposhnikov, who worked as a forester of the Belorechensky forestry of the Kuban Army, sent a letter to the Russian Academy of Sciences justifying the need to reserve the territory leased from the Kuban Army. The main reason for creating the reserve was the protection of the endangered Caucasian bison. The letter also outlined the boundaries of the reserve. Based on this letter, Academician N. Nasonov made a report, and the Academy of Sciences created a commission. As a military forester, Shaposhnikov participated in her work to organize the reserve. However, for a number of reasons related to the division of land by the Kuban Cossacks, the matter did not progress significantly.
Repeated attempts to create a reserve were made in 1913 and 1916. Finally, in 1919, a positive decision was made.
With the establishment of Soviet power in the region, the issue of the reserve had to be resolved anew. Only in May 1924 was the state Caucasian bison reserve established.
Cross Pass - the highest point of the Georgian Military Road
DEFENSE OF THE CAUCASIAN RIDGE
Fighting on the passes.
In mid-August 1942, the 1st and 4th divisions of the 49th German Mountain Rifle Corps, concentrated in the area of Nevinnomyssk and Cherkessk, began to move freely to the passes of the Main Caucasus Range, since there were no our troops in this direction, but 46 The I Army, which was entrusted with organizing the defense, did not even have time to approach the southern slopes of the passes. There were no engineering structures at the passes.
By August 14, the 1st German Mountain Rifle Division reached the Verkhnyaya Teberda, Zelenchukskaya, Storozhevaya areas, and the 4th German Mountain Rifle Division reached the Akhmetovskaya area. Strong groups of specially trained enemy climbers, who had experienced guides, forestalled our units and, from August 17 to October 9, occupied all the passes in the area from Mount Elbrus to the Umpyrsky Pass. In the Klukhor and Sanchar directions, the Nazis, having overcome the Main Caucasus Range, reached its southern slopes, moving forward 10-25 km. There was a threat of the capture of Sukhumi and the disruption of supplies along the communications route along the Black Sea coast.
On August 20, the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command demanded that the commander of the Transcaucasian Front, along with the creation of a strong defense in the main operational directions, immediately strengthen the defense of the Main Caucasian Ridge, especially the Georgian Military, Ossetian Military and Sukhumi Military roads. The headquarters ordered to blow up and fill up all passes and paths, mountain passes on which no defensive structures had been created, and to prepare the areas defended by the troops for explosion in case of withdrawal. It was proposed to appoint commandants on all roads and directions, giving them full responsibility for the defense and condition of the roads.
Following the instructions of the Headquarters, the command of the Transcaucasian Front began to deploy forces to stop the advance of the Nazi troops on the passes of the Main Caucasus Ridge.
In the Elbrus direction, units of the 1st German Mountain Rifle Division, taking advantage of the absence of our troops, on August 18 occupied the Khotyu-Tau and Chiper-Azau passes, the Krugozor and Shelter of Eleven tourist bases on the southern slopes of Mount Elbrus. Units of the 8th Motorized Regiment of the NKVD and the 63rd Cavalry Division that arrived here threw the enemy back from these passes to the “Shelter of Eleven”, where he was held until January 1943.
The Klukhorsky pass was covered by a company of the 815th regiment. On August 15, the enemy threw a regiment here. Unable to withstand the strong blow, the defenders of the pass began to retreat to the southern slopes, where two more companies were located. The fighting was fierce. Having learned about them on August 17, the command of the 46th Army sent two battalions and an NKVD detachment to help the units of the 816th Regiment, which, upon approaching the battle area on August 22, stopped the further advance of the Nazis. On September 8, enemy units were thrown back to the Klukhor Pass, where they remained until January 1943.
On September 5, the enemy regiment, after a concentrated air strike and a fire attack by artillery and mortars, began an attack on the Marukh Pass, which was defended by two battalions. After stubborn fighting, the defenders were forced to leave the pass on September 7. Further German advance here was stopped by arriving reinforcements, but it was not possible to reset them from the pass until January 1943. The Sanchar Pass was defended by one company and a combined detachment of the NKVD. The fascist German command sent a regiment against them on August 25. The Nazis managed to drive our units out of the pass and almost unhindered to reach the area, which is 25 km from Gudauta and Sukhumi. An urgently created Sanchar group of troops was sent to meet the enemy, consisting of one rifle regiment, two rifle battalions, two NKVD regiments and a detachment of cadets from the 1st Tbilisi Infantry School. On August 29, the group came into contact with German units, stopped them, and on August 6, with the support of aviation, went on the offensive.
Two days later, she captured the village of Pskhu, which served as the enemy’s main base on the southern slopes of the Main Caucasus Range. Now the Nazis did not have a single settlement left in this area. By October 20, our troops in the Sanchar direction, with the support of the Black Sea Fleet aviation, pushed them back to the northern slopes of the Main Caucasus Range.
The role of the Black Sea Fleet aviation in the defeat of the enemy group in the Sanchar direction is enormous. DB-3, SB, Pe-2 and R-10 aircraft, based at the airfields of Gudauta and Babushery at a distance of 25-35 km from the front line, made 6-10 sorties daily to carry out bombing strikes on enemy troops, and on days of intense fighting - up to 40 sorties. In total, in September 1942, Black Sea Fleet aviation dropped about a thousand FAB-100s onto the Sancharsky and Marukhsky passes.
Thus, our troops, having almost no artillery and mortars, received the greatest and only support from naval aviation.
The fascist German command also tried to capture the Umpyrsky and Belorechensky passes. On August 28, the Nazis sent two reinforced battalions to the Umpyrsky Pass, which was defended by two companies. However, thanks to a well-organized defense and the brave actions of Soviet soldiers, numerous enemy attacks were repulsed. The Belorechensky Pass was stormed by an infantry regiment and several squadrons of enemy cavalry with artillery support. Thanks to the energetic actions of our forces and arriving reserves, the enemy was stopped and then thrown back far to the north.
So, by the actions of units of the 46th Army and the aviation of the Black Sea Fleet, the offensive of the German 49th Mountain Rifle Corps, specially prepared for combat operations in the mountains, was thwarted. By the end of October 1942, a stable defense of the Main Caucasus Ridge was created.
Anti-landing defense of the Poti naval base. In July - December, the defense of the Black Sea coast from the Soviet-Turkish border to Lazarevskaya was carried out by the forces of the Poti naval base together with the 46th Army of the Transcaucasian Front. In the second half of August, when Nazi troops approached the passes of the Main Caucasus Range, the 46th Army was redirected to repel this main danger; coastal defense became the sole task of the Poti naval base.
The composition of the base forces changed with the situation. The enemy intensified reconnaissance of the main fleet base and began bombing the base and ships. By the end of December, the base air defense area was replenished with a regiment and thus included three anti-aircraft regiments and a separate anti-aircraft artillery division. The base's rifle units also increased by one battalion and two platoons of Marines. But these forces were clearly not enough to organize a reliable defense of the coast, so it was built on the principle of creating separate resistance centers that covered the main directions. Between the nodes of resistance, blockages and abatis were built, separate machine-gun points were installed, and anti-personnel minefields were set up.
The strongest defense from land was created in the region of Poti and Batumi, where it was decided to equip four lines: forward, main, rear and internal. The forward line of defense was supposed to be 35 - 45 km from the base, the main line - 25 - 30 km, the rear line - 10 - 20 km from Poti and Batumi, the internal line - directly on the outskirts and in the depths of the vegetable gardens. To conduct street fighting, the construction of barricades and anti-tank obstacles was envisaged.
However, the planned engineering defensive structures were not built. The forward and main lines of defense were not equipped at all due to the lack of manpower, and on the rear line, work on the rear line was only 75% completed by October 25.
The entire land defense area of Poti was divided into three sectors. The first sector was defended by a battalion of marines supported by eleven coastal artillery guns, the second sector by a coastal defense school and a border detachment (343 people and seven guns), the third sector by personnel of the 1st torpedo boat brigade and a border detachment (105 people and eight guns). ). There were about 500 people in the reserve of the commander of the Poti naval base. In addition, all sectors were supported by naval artillery.
In order to better use forces in the defense of the coast, a manual for the anti-landing defense of the Poti naval base was developed.
However, there were also significant shortcomings in the organization of coastal defense. The engineering structures created at the beginning of 1942, due to the long time frame for their construction, had fallen into disrepair by 30-40% and required extensive repairs. Coastal artillery was poorly prepared to repel the enemy from land. Batteries No. 716 and 881 had no shrapnel shells at all. Over 50% of the personnel of the 164th separate artillery battalion did not have rifles.
There were also major shortcomings in the organization of the air defense of the base, which were revealed during an enemy air raid on Poti on July 16. First of all, the surveillance and warning system was poorly developed. Thus, due to the location of patrol boats near the base, the command of the base air defense area did not have the opportunity to detect the enemy in time and raise fighter aircraft, and some anti-aircraft batteries were not even notified of the approach of enemy aircraft.
However, despite all these shortcomings, formations and units of the Poti naval base provided reliable basing for the fleet and created favorable conditions for the operations of units of the 46th Army on the passes of the Main Caucasus Ridge.
Conclusions on the actions of the Black Sea Fleet in the defense of bases and coasts
As a result of a five-month offensive in the second half of 1942, fascist German troops achieved significant successes. They captured the North Caucasus and the Taman Peninsula, reached the foothills of the Main Caucasus Range and the Terek River and captured the passes. The enemy managed to occupy economically important areas and create a difficult situation for our troops in the Caucasus, but he was unable to overcome the defenses of our troops and achieve strategic success.
During fierce defensive battles, Soviet troops and the Black Sea Fleet bled the enemy dry, stopped his advance in the foothills and at the turn of the Terek River, and thus thwarted Hitler’s plans to capture the entire Caucasus and the Soviet Black Sea Fleet.
The Black Sea Fleet and the Azov Military Flotilla, operationally subordinate to the command of the North Caucasus Front and then the Transcaucasian Front, closely interacting with these fronts, provided them with great assistance in the defense and defeat of the Nazi troops in the Caucasus. The Black Sea Fleet and the Azov Flotilla reliably covered the coastal flank of our ground forces, organizing an anti-landing defense of the Azov and Black Sea coasts, allocating for this purpose about 40 thousand people from marine units, coastal and anti-aircraft artillery units, 200 anti-aircraft guns, 150 coastal artillery guns, 250 warships, vessels and watercraft and up to 250 aircraft.
Units of the marine corps, coastal artillery and aviation operating on land showed resilience, high moral and political spirit, mass heroism and an unyielding will to defeat the enemy.
Although the anti-landing defense of the coast by the Black Sea Fleet was organized in accordance with the situation and fully justified itself, it should be admitted that it was poorly saturated with rifle units, which gave the enemy the opportunity to land troops on the Taman Peninsula on September 2, 1942 and attempt to land on the night of October 30 landing on the eastern shore of Tsemes Bay.
The experience of the defense of Novorossiysk and Tuapse showed that the delay in organizing forces for defense, the shallow depth of defense and the dispersion of forces led to significant losses in manpower and equipment and the loss of Novorossiysk, and the timely creation of the Tuapse defensive region made it possible to organize a deep, strong defense of the base from land and not allow the enemy into the defended area. The experience of base defense also showed that one of the main reasons for their rapid decline was the lack of reserves at the base command, which did not allow them to repel enemy attacks in a timely manner.
The experience of base defense confirmed the need to organize interaction and unite all forces under a single command. The best form of such an organization was a fully justified defensive area, divided into sectors and combat areas.
The heroic defense of the Caucasus was a good combat school for units of the Soviet Army and the Black Sea Fleet. In the course of it, they accumulated enormous combat experience and mastered the tactics of action in the mountains. Soviet troops were re-equipped with light weapons, rifle units were reinforced with engineering units, commanders mastered the art of command and control in difficult conditions, the rear organized supply for troops in mountainous conditions, using aviation and all types of transport, including pack transport.
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SOURCE OF INFORMATION AND PHOTO:
Team Nomads.
B.A. Garf. Bezengi Gorge. - Moscow: State Publishing House of Geographical Literature, 1952.
A.F. Naumov. Central Caucasus. — Moscow: “PHYSICAL CULTURE AND SPORTS”, 1967.
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Bush I. A. Glaciers of the Western Caucasus. Notes of the Russian Geographical Society on general geography. T. XXXIII. No. 4, 1905,
Dictionary of modern geographical names / Under the general editorship of academician. V. M. Kotlyakova. - Ekaterinburg: U-Factoria, 2006.
Around Elbrus. Tourist route map (M. 1:100,000). Pyatigorsk: North-Kav. AGP. 1992. Roscartography 1992, 1999 (with a more detailed description)
http://www.anapacity.com/bitva-za-kavkaz/glavnyj-kavkazskiy-hrebet.html
Topographic map K-38-13. - GUGK USSR, 1984.
Wikipedia website.
Opryshko O. L. Sky-high front of the Elbrus region. - M.: Voenizdat, 1976. - 152 p. — (The heroic past of our Motherland). — 65,000 copies.
Beroev B. M. Elbrus region: Essay on nature. Chronicle of the conquest of Elbrus. Tourist routes. - M.: Profizdat, 1984. - 208 p. - (One hundred paths - one hundred roads). — 97,500 copies.
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Geographical position
Stretching between the Black and Caspian seas, the Caucasus Mountains are a natural border between Asia and Europe. They also divide the Near and Middle East. Due to their vast territory, they can easily be called “a country of ridges and highlands.” There are two versions of the origin of the word “Caucasus”. According to the first, this was the name of the epic king from the poem “Shahnameh” - Kavi-Kaus. The second hypothesis attributes the name to the translation: “Supporting the sky.” Geographically, the Caucasus is divided into two mountain systems: Big and Small. In turn, they also have divisions into ridges, chains and highlands.
Height of the Caucasus Mountains
The Caucasus often appears on the list of “the best”. For example, the highest permanent settlement of Ushguli (Georgia) is located here. It lies on the slope of Shkhara (5068 m above sea level) and is included in the UNESCO list. Ushba has acquired a gloomy reputation among climbers as the most difficult peak to conquer - a “four-thousander”. Mysterious Ararat is surrounded by biblical legends. There are also high-mountain lakes here - Ritsa, for example. And the Zeygalan waterfall (North Ossetia) is the largest in Russia (600 m). This attracts many climbers, athletes and just tourists to the region. The highest snow-capped peaks, glaciers shining in the sun, inaccessible passes, narrow gorges, waterfalls and stormy, bubbling rivers - all these are the Caucasus Mountains. The height of the largest peaks - Elbrus (5642) and Kazbek (5034) - exceeds Mont Blanc (4810), considered the culmination point of Western Europe.
Myths and legends
The Caucasus is mentioned in the Bible. In the Book of Genesis, the ark of the righteous Noah landed at Mount Ararat during the great flood, and from there a dove brought an olive branch. Jason sailed to the land of sorcerers Colchis (Black Sea coast of the Caucasus) for the Golden Fleece. Here the eagle of Zeus punished Prometheus for giving fire to people. The Caucasus Mountains also have their own regional legends. Every people living on the slopes of this majestic country of glaciers and snowy peaks - and there are about fifty of them - composes tales and myths about them.
Geology
The Caucasus is a young mountain system. It was formed relatively recently - about 25 million years ago, during the Tertiary period. Thus, the Caucasus Mountains belong to the Alpine folding, but with insignificant volcanic activity. There have been no eruptions for a long time, but earthquakes are frequent. The biggest one last happened in 1988. In Spitak (Armenia), 25 thousand people died then. The main geological wealth of the mountains is oil. The fields are estimated to have reserves of 200 billion barrels.
Flora and fauna
The Caucasus Mountains are home to many species of wild animals. Bears live in the gorges, and there are also golden eagles, chamois, wild boars, and argali. There are also endemics - species that, except for the Caucasus, cannot be found anywhere else on the planet. These include local species of leopard and lynx. Before the beginning of our era, manuscripts mention the presence of Caspian tigers and Asiatic lions. The biological diversity of this region is rapidly declining. The last Caucasian bison became extinct in 1926, the local subspecies - in 1810. In this region of subtropical forests, alpine meadows and alpine lichens, 6,350 plant species have been recorded. Of these, more than one and a half thousand are endemic.
The Caucasus Mountains stretch along the southern border of the Russian Plain. This is the largest of the mountain structures bordering the Russian Plain in the south. Only the Ciscaucasia and part of the Greater Caucasus (northern slopes) are located within Russia. Russia's borders with Azerbaijan and Georgia run mainly along the crest of the Main Caucasus Range.
The Ciscaucasia covers a vast area south of the Russian Plain between the Black and Azov Seas in the west and the Caspian Sea in the east. The border of the Russian Plain and the Ciscaucasia is the Kuma-Manych depression. At the base of the Ciscaucasia relief there is a platform of Paleozoic age, which is covered with younger sedimentary rocks. The relief of Ciscaucasia is generally flat. The largest relief forms here are the Stavropol Upland, the Caspian Lowland, and the Kuban-Azov Plain. The Ciscaucasia region is rich in oil and flammable gas deposits.
In winter and autumn, the entire Ciscaucasia region is characterized by increased atmospheric pressure, so northeastern and eastern winds predominate here. In winter, Ciscaucasia is dry and windy. In winter, warm air masses from the Atlantic enter the western part of the region. This causes severe thaws, which can give way to snowfalls and blizzards. Summer in the Ciscaucasia is hot. This area is characterized by different humidity levels in the western and eastern parts. The Stavropol Upland serves as a barrier to westerly winds from the Atlantic.
If to the west of the elevation the average annual precipitation is 500 mm, at the elevation itself - 600 mm, then to the east the annual amount decreases to 300-400 mm and below. The largest amount of precipitation falls in June. Such differences lead to the fact that it is in the west of the Ciscaucasia that the main river systems are concentrated, the largest of which is the Kuban. The Ciscaucasia region is located almost entirely in the steppe region with chernozem and chestnut soils. They are almost completely open. Sunflowers, winter wheat and corn, and rice are grown here; Horticulture and viticulture are widely developed. This is one of the main breadbaskets of the country (80% of the entire territory of the Ciscaucasia is agricultural land).
The Greater Caucasus Range is a grandiose mountain rise consisting of numerous ridges and spurs. It stretches from northwest to southeast from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea. The highest peak of the Caucasus (in Russia) is Mount Elbrus (5642 m). Once upon a time, in its place there was the Tethys Ocean, connecting the Black Sea with the Caspian Sea. At its bottom, intense magmatic activity took place; part of the magma penetrated into the earth's crust. There was an intensive process of accumulation of rocks of sedimentary origin. All these rocks were folded and complicated by faults, faults and thrusts. Numerous volcanoes (for example, Elbrus) were active during the Alpine orogeny and experienced vertical uplift, which also involved other areas. As a result, modern mountains arose.
The part of the Greater Caucasus that lies within Russia is entirely in a temperate climate. Winter and summer temperatures here vary depending on the location of the territory. The territory of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus warms up best. Here in summer the temperature averages +24°C, and in winter - from +1°C to 5°C. In high mountain areas, summers are cooler (+12°C) and winters are colder (-12°C). Maximum precipitation also falls on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus - 1500 mm per year; near the Caspian coast, they fall almost 4 times less. Such a large amount of precipitation in the west of the Greater Caucasus is explained by the influence of westerly winds, which deposit precipitation on the windward slopes of the mountains. Modern glaciation has developed in the Greater Caucasus.
Many rivers (for example, Terek) begin in the mountains. Many of them are fed by rain and glaciers. The mountainous terrain of the Greater Caucasus determines the development of altitudinal zones. The forest-steppe rises to a height of 100 m. Above it, up to a height of 600 m, beech-oak forests grow on mountain brown soils. With height, the oak begins to disappear. Above 1200-1500 m, coniferous forests, consisting of Caucasian fir and spruce, begin to predominate. Dry-loving pine forests grow in the valleys of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus Range. From 2000 m subalpine and alpine meadows begin. Subalpine meadows are distinguished by high and dense grass with thickets of rhododendron bushes. Alpine meadows are short-grass meadows with an admixture of sedges and cereals. These meadows are excellent pastures. Above the alpine meadows there are belts of snow and ice.
The altitudinal zone of the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus Range differs from the western one. In the west, in conditions of good humidity and warmth, forests grow that have the features of humid subtropics. These forests consist of broad-leaved species: chestnut, oak, beech, hornbeam with evergreen undergrowth and vines. The undergrowth consists of cherry laurel, boxwood, and yew. In the east, at the foot of the northern slopes, there are semi-deserts and dry steppes (they form in conditions of low moisture). These semi-deserts and steppes rise high into the mountains. The forest belt is not clearly defined here. Only in the mountain valleys do pine forests and beech groves grow; dark coniferous forests do not grow here.
The richness and diversity of its resources are associated with the diversity of natural conditions of the Caucasus. The dry steppes and semi-deserts of the eastern Caucasus are pastures for fine-wool sheep. The subsoil contains ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Beech, spruce, fir, oak and pine are harvested in mountain forests. Large resorts of national importance are connected to the Black Sea coast (Sochi) and mineral springs (Kislovodsk, Mineralnye Vody). On the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, subtropical agriculture is developed: tea, citrus fruits, walnuts, peaches, grapes. Rivers coming down from the mountains carry a large supply of energy. The waters of these rivers also flow into irrigation canals.
There are several nature reserves in the Caucasus Mountains: in Dagestan, North Ossetia, and others.
